America was founded on the idea of expansion so each new frontier attracted waves of settlers hungry for land. By the late 1820s, Texas was the current frontier but unfortunately it was part of Mexico, not America, although that mattered little to those strong Anglo-Saxon frontiersmen whose motto was Go Ahead. So many men went to Texas that clerks would close accounts by simply writing GTT (Gone To Texas) next to the name. Among the violent drifters who had failed back home were a group of men who schemed to liberate Texas from Mexico, although the more established colonists would have nothing to with them and called them the War Dogs.

Texas had long been viewed as a barbaric territory on the distant edge of Mexico but in the late 1820s the Mexican government began to pay more attention to the area. Concerned that American immigrants greatly outnumbered native born Mexicans in Texas, on April 6, 1830 the Mexican government forbade further immigration from America, although it proved impossible to prevent Anglo ‘wetbacks’ from crossing the Red River. More unsettling was the arrival of Mexican troops to enforce the collection of customs duties, which threatened an extremely profitable practice of smuggling cotton. In addition, the ban on slavery and the requirement to convert to Roman Catholicism irritated many colonists, and the War Dogs eagerly seized these issues to stir up trouble between the colonists and the Mexican troops based at Anahuac, a key smuggling center. Tired of their constant provocations, the local commander arrested several War Dogs, which led to increasingly violent confrontations and eventually a fight on June 26, 1832 that left five Mexican soldiers and ten colonists dead.

In retrospect, this was the first battle of the Texas Revolution but the Mexican government was still exhausted from its own exceptionally violent war of independence from Spain (1810-1821) that had taken the lives of one sixth of the population, so the senior Mexican officer in Texas reacted by withdrawing all troops from Anahuac. By this time, all of the Anglo colonists wanted independence and disagreed only on whether or not to use violence. In the end, the decision would be made for them. Stephen Austin, the leader of the Peace Party, went to Mexico City in 1834 to lobby for a re-opening of Anglo immigration but after cooling his heels for five months he vented his frustrations in a letter that called for self-government. Unfortunately, the letter was intercepted and after eighteen months in prison he no longer believed in peaceful methods.

Santa Anna, the dictator of Mexico, had spent 1834 and 1835 brutally crushing revolts in several states, so he did not react well when he learned that a second garrison had been ejected from Anahuac in June 1835. General Martin Perfecto de Cos, his brother-in-law, was dispatched with three hundred men to restore order to Texas but he had horrible timing, choosing to land his troops in September when the harvest had already been gathered and the weather would be warm for another three months. Worse, Austin had just returned and was calling for war. Although the War Dogs had made repeated efforts to start a war, their usual drunken state made them more of a menace to themselves but Cos failed to see the humor in the situation and ordered the arrest of several of their leaders, including William Travis. This was a fatal error, since while the War Dogs were irritating, drunken troublemakers, they were white, irritating, drunken troublemakers, so men started gathering to resist the Mexican troops.

The first battle of the revolution took place on October 2, 1835 when over a hundred Anglos led by Colonel John Henry Moore drove off a force of Mexican troops sent to seize a cannon at Gonzales. One week later, the rebel army seized the lightly defended fort at Goliad, acquiring 200 muskets and a sense of invincibility. San Antonio, where Cos had made his HQ, was obviously the next objective. Recruits soon started arriving from America because it was the only war in town for restless, young men since the Indian tribes had been pacified. The offer of land in exchange for military service was an especially attractive factor since all of the free public land in America had been taken.

The siege of San Antonio began on November 1, but lacking an organized plan, the siege dragged on for over a month with little success. General Edward Burleson took command on November 24 after Austin traveled to America to gain support for the revolution. Burleson planned to abandon the siege but his senior officers refused to follow his orders. On December 5, Colonels Ben Milam and Francis Johnson led a two pronged attack into the town of San Antonio, and when the rebels found that they could safely advance by tunneling through houses that were built next to each other the Mexicans retreated into the Alamo, a fortified mission. However, low supplies forced the garrison to surrender on December 11, and Cos and his troops were sent back to Mexico.  

With the Alamo captured, there were no longer any Mexican troops in Texas so the remaining original rebels returned to their farms, while the majority of the non-Texan adventurers stayed. Believing that the Mexicans would not be able to retaliate until spring, the various rebel leaders began arguing over who was in charge instead of preparing to face the Mexican army. Sam Houston was made head of the army but failed to create a chain of command, so he was unable to stop a particularly greedy land speculator from using the promise of loot to persuade the majority of the Alamo’s garrison to march on the port of Matamoros, deep in Mexico. However, most of the troops soon abandoned the expedition, since it was a bit rash even by Go Ahead standards, and ended up in Goliad.

The poor state of the Mexican army initially justified the rebels’ confidence since Santa Anna had to take out huge loans and send his press gangs out to put together an army of 6,000 men. He rejected the advice of the majority of his senior officers to bypass the Alamo and Goliad and strike directly into the essentially defenseless colonies in favor of an exhausting overland march. However, when the advance elements of his army reached the outskirts of San Antonio on February 21, months earlier than expected, it sent waves of panic through the Anglo colonies, although it did not prevent the delegates from commencing the constitutional convention on March 1.

Jim Bowie had been sent to blow up the Alamo in January but he decided to hold it and then agreed to share command with William Travis after he showed up. When the Mexican army appeared Travis immediately sent out messages calling for help but there was no help to send because aside from the 150 men at the Alamo (including Davy Crockett), another 420 men at Goliad, and 100 or so chasing loot in Matamoros, the rebels had not created a proper army. Unlike Goliad, the Alamo was not an actual fort, merely a strongly built mission, and the garrison had been too busy drinking to repair the walls that were damaged during the earlier siege. Realizing that it would be impossible to defend the Alamo with so few men, Bowie tried to negotiate a surrender but Santa Anna would only accept unconditional surrender. Command soon fell to Travis because Bowie’s most recent drunken binge was one too many for his immune system and he was laid flat by tubercolis, pneumonia or typhoid on February 23.    

It took twelve days to build proper siege lines and Santa Anna was ahead of schedule but he chose to launch a frontal attack instead of waiting a couple of more days for his heavy cannon because he wanted to take the Alamo by storm in order to strike fear in the hearts of the rest of the rebels. The attack took place at dawn on March 6 and while the initial wave of Mexican soldiers took horrible casualties, as much due to confusion as the rebels’ cannon, the following waves swarmed over the walls. The bloodlust required to climb a wall while being shot at did not go away quickly and few rebels were able to surrender. By the end of the battle, only a dozen non-combatants and six rebels, possibly including Crockett, had survived. However, Santa Anna did not want prisoners and had the six rebels killed on the spot. In the end, 182 rebels were dead at a cost of over 600 Mexican casualties, although the number of Mexican dead would have been lower if Santa Anna had remembered to bring doctors.
Heroes of the Alamo (1937)
Directed by Harry L. Fraser, starring Earle Hodgins and Bruce Warren
When Mexican dictator Santa Anna forbids further American emigration into Mexico, the colonists in Texas eventually decide to revolt after they learn that Santa Anna refuses to negotiate. At first, the Mexican troops are easily defeated but when Santa Anna brings an army of 5,000 men the colonists prepare to defend the Alamo to the last man.   
The Last Command (1955)
Directed by Frank Lloyd, starring Sterling Hayden and Arthur Hunnicutt
Disillusioned with the Mexican dictatorship, Jim Bowie joins the rebellion and takes command of the troops at the Alamo, where he is joined by volunteers led by Davy Crockett. Although hopelessly outnumbered by Santa Anna’s army, the men vow to fight to the death.
The Alamo (1960)
Directed by John Wayne, starring John Wayne and Richard Widmark
As Santa Anna’s army advances deep into Texas to crush the young republic, General Sam Houston sends a small force under Colonel Travis to hold the Alamo long enough for him to organize a proper army. Joined by volunteers led by Jim Bowie and Davy Crockett, the men face hopeless odds but refuse to surrender. (please click here to read the review)
The Alamo (2004)
Directed by John Lee Hancock, starring Dennis Quaid and Billy Bob Thorton
As Santa Anna’s army advances deep into Texas to crush the young republic, General Sam Houston sends a small force under Colonel Travis to hold the Alamo long enough for him to organize a proper army. Joined by volunteers led by Jim Bowie and Davy Crockett, the men find themselves facing hopeless odds but refuse to surrender. Lacking enough troops, Houston refuses to relieve the Alamo and leads the Mexican army deeper into Texas where he wins a huge victory at San Jacinto. (please click here to read the review)
Man of Conquest (1939)
Directed by George Nichols, Jr, starring Richard Dix and Gail Patrick
It tells the story of Sam Houston's life, including his friendship with the Cherokee, his political career (guided by his mentor Andrew Jackson), his participation in the Texas Revolution and the annexation of the republic by the United States.
The First Texan (1956)
Directed by Byron Haskin, starring Joel McCrea and Felicia Farr
Lawyer Sam Houston arrives in Texas looking for a fresh start but is ordered by President Andrew Jackson to join a group of men conspiring to make Texas independent of Mexico, although Jackson’s goal is for independent Texas to join the United States.

Following the destruction of the Alamo’ garrison, Santa Anna divided his army into several flying columns, which were sent in different directions in order to force the remaining rebels to fight. Texas officially declared independence on March 3 and Houston became commander of the army the next day. The rebels’ only real army was the 400 men with Colonel James Fannin in Goliad, 100 miles away from the Alamo. He immediately headed towards Gonzales where he presumed that 700 men, including Fannin’s troops, would be waiting, which would be enough men to relieve the Alamo and commence a guerrilla campaign against Santa Anna’s army, while hoping to provoke an intervention by the US. When Houston reached Gonzales on March 11 the Alamo had already fallen, so he ordered Fannin to abandon Goliad in preparation for a guerrilla campaign.

Keeping the tradition of disobeying orders that typified the revolution, Fannin was still debating whether to retreat as ordered or defend the fort when a Mexican army under General Jose Urrea arrived. The rebels were able to slip out under the cover of fog on March 18 but Fannin decided to halt for the night on the prairie in sight of a forest that offered cover and water because he had only contempt for Mexican troops and he had faith in his rearguard. Unfortunately, his rearguard fell asleep and the Mexican cavalry were able to cut them off from the forest. The rebels held off the enemy until nightfall but when Mexican reinforcements arrived with artillery the next morning, Fannin realized it was hopeless and surrendered.

General Urrea had accumulated over 500 prisoners and was struggling to persuade Santa Anna to revoke his policy of no quarter. Tired of arguing, Santa Anna simply sent a direct order to one of Urrea’s subordinates, and the prisoners, except for skilled laborers and doctors, were executed on March 27.

Although Houston’s army was heavily outnumbered, most of the officers and men hated retreating, while Houston’s scorched earth policy did little to improve morale. The news that Santa Anna was on his way drove much of his army to desert in order to protect their families, so Houston ignored the constant criticism from pretty much everyone and continued to retreat.  

Fearing that Urrea was getting all of the glory, Santa Anna left the main force behind and rushed ahead with the vanguard in order to win the glory of the decisive victory. Learning that Santa Anna was not far behind, Houston knew that the entire army would mutiny if he did not seek out the enemy in order to avenge the Alamo and Goliad. Realizing that there would be no second chances, Houston decided to rush towards his preferred battlefield, an area blocked by swamps on two sides and the San Jacinto river in the rear to prevent retreat. The two armies encountered each other on April 20 but Houston refused to let his men leave the forest and fight, so Santa Anna decided to have his men dig in and wait for reinforcements. Unfortunately, the reinforcements that arrived the next morning were raw troops and he had chosen a position where he could not retreat. The rebels were in the cool shade of the forest while the Mexican troops were out in the open, under a blazing sun, so when the enemy made no move during the morning, Santa Anna allowed the men to have a siesta after lunch. By 3:30PM it was clear that the rebels could not be held back any longer and within half an hour the army was moving.  

No guards had been posted or they had fallen asleep so the rebels were able to march unnoticed across the open area between the forest and the Mexican camp until they were 200 yards away, at which point they started firing. While shocked, the Mexican soldiers fought back until the rebels’ cannon blew a hole through the Mexican barricade and a horde of rebels stormed through screaming “Remember Goliad! Remember the Alamo!” Attempts at surrender proved futile and the slaughter of unarmed Mexican troops lasted for several hours as rebel officers were unable or unwilling to control their men. In the end, 9 rebels and 630 Mexicans were killed, while another 730 were taken prisoner.
The Alamo (2004)
Directed by John Lee Hancock, starring Dennis Quaid and Billy Bob Thorton
As Santa Anna’s army advances deep into Texas to crush the young republic, General Sam Houston sends a small force under Colonel Travis to hold the Alamo long enough for him to organize a proper army. Joined by volunteers led by Jim Bowie and Davy Crockett, the men find themselves facing hopeless odds but refuse to surrender. Lacking enough troops, Houston refuses to relieve the Alamo and leads the Mexican army deeper into Texas where he wins a huge victory at San Jacinto.

When Santa Anna was captured most of the men were stunned to see him spared, but Houston knew that the rest of the Mexican army was nearby, so he made Santa Anna an offer he could not refuse. Order his army to return to Mexico or die. Almost a month later, Santa Anna signed a formal treaty, the Treaty of Velascoe, which gave Texas all of the land north of the Rio Grande (roughly the size of the original 13 colonies).

However, a Mexican army just across the border meant that the young republic’s future was not secure, so on September 5, 1836 the Texan legislature unanimously voted to be annexed by America and was unanimously stunned when the request was rejected on December 22. President-elect Martin Van Buren felt that the country was not willing to go to war with Mexico and the Mexican government apparently felt the same since its army stayed on its side of the border. Despite occasional flare-ups along the border, the young Republic continued to grow and gradually won recognition from a number of countries, so the desire to be annexed by America began to cool during the early 1840s. At the same time, the increasing British influence in Texas worried many in America and James Polk won the 1844 presidential election on the promise that he would annex Texas. Texas officially became part of America on December 29, 1845.
The Man from the Alamo (1953)
Directed by Budd Boetticher, starring Glenn Ford and Julie Adams
During the siege of the Alamo, one man is selected to protect the defenders’ families from bandits but arrives too late. As the only survivor, he is branded a coward, especially after he pretends to join a gang of outlaws while leading a wagon train, and must deal with being ostracized.
Lone Star (1952)
Directed by Vincent Sherman, starring Clark Gable and Ava Gardner
A cattle baron is sent by former president Andrew Jackson to investigate rumors that Sam Houston is getting cold feet about the United States annexing the new Republic of Texas.
The Comancheros (1961)
Directed by Michael Curtiz, starring John Wayne and Stuart Whitman
When Texas was still an independent republic, a Texas Ranger is forced to work with his prisoner, a gambler wanted for killing a man in a duel, to infiltrate renegade white men known as Comancheros, who are selling guns to the Comanche.

Books:

Duel of Eagles: The Mexican and US Fight for the Alamo-Jeff Long, New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc, 1990.

It is simply an excellent book that covers the entire Texan War of Independence and punctures pretty much every myth about Texan independence. Brief yet insightful biographies introduce all of the major participants. The final chapter quickly covers the Republic’s short history and the Mexican War that followed the American annexation of Texas but focuses more on the tragic lives of Travis’ slave Joe and Susannah Dickinson, as well as the further misadventures of Santa Anna. Long’s writing is entertaining although occasionally a bit too melodramatic, which was probably the result of reading so many diaries filled with florid language. I imagine a great number of Texans must have been offended when his book came out.

Lone Star Rising: The Revolutionary Birth of the Texas Republic-William C. Davis, New York: Free Press, 2004.

A surprisingly long section of the book is an in-depth look at the Mexican revolution and previous attempts by American filibusters and other foreign schemers, including the Lafitte syndicate, to seize control of Mexico that took place during the chaos of the revolution. The infighting among American filibusters, the Lafitte syndicate, former followers of Napoleon, and Mexican revolutionaries makes for fascinating reading. Another lengthy chapter is devoted to the story of Austin’s land grants and the development of legitimate colonies, where the colonists learned to depend on themselves. I am pleased that Davis does not just compare the Mexican Revolution to the American Revolution but also to the revolutions in Central and South America, which is a more valid comparison. However, no mention is made of the steady drinking that accompanied the majority of decisions during the Texan revolution and he fails to make the main actors come to life. Unfortunately, the detailed examination of the background and situation in Mexico means that the battle for the Alamo is covered in a single chapter. Davis also gives some credence to the hallowed myth that Bowie and Travis decided to hold the Alamo to buy time for Houston to build an army, believing that it is an important part of Texan history.