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While the British government knew that the American colonies were increasingly resentful of London’s control of the individual colonies’ governments, they had expected that a display of force would bring the rebellious colonists to heel. However, events quickly spiraled out of control. An attempt to capture members of the Continental Congress and weapons stored at Concord in April 1775 had proven an embarrassing failure and the British army found itself surrounded at Boston by thousands of militiamen. Spies in the city warned the rebels of the British plan to occupy Dorchester Heights and the hills on the Charleston Peninsula, which dominated the city, and the militia quickly occupied Breed’s Hill on the peninsula. The rebels were only evicted after a surprisingly bloody battle on June 17, which discouraged the outnumbered British from trying to break through the American lines. The situation soon reached a stalemate. The British could not get out and the rebels could not get in, so an American army was sent in the fall to attack Quebec.

The Siege of Boston
Major General William Howe, commander of the British army, had preferred New York City as a winter base, but snow was already on the ground when permission arrived from London. Faced with battle, Howe was a brave, experienced general but he enjoyed his social life and his mistress Elizabeth Loring, the beautiful wife of a loyalist paid to run the commissary for rebel prisoners. Having personally led the charge on Breed’s Hill, he had learned not to attack the rebels when they were dug in, so he was content to wait for reinforcements. He had no knowledge or even desire to learn that less than 5,000 rebels were still able to fight by mid-January.

On January 17, George Washington, commander of the American army, was informed that the army sent to invade Canada had been badly defeated at Quebec but several days later Henry Knox arrived with cannon from the fortress Ticonderoga at the southern end of Lake Champlain. It had not been an easy trip since three mortars weighed a ton each and one cannon tipped the scales at 5,000 pounds. Unending headwinds meant it took eight straight days of back-breaking rowing to cross Lake George, and the cannon were then transferred to sleds for the journey to the frozen Hudson River. The area between the Hudson and Albany was quite mountainous and getting the sleds safely down steep slopes proved to be both exhausting and terrifying. When the 58 cannon and mortars finally reached Boston in late January, Washington put Knox in command of the artillery in recognition of his leadership ability.

Even with cannon, a direct attack on Boston was too risky, so the enemy lines were shelled heavily for three hours during the night of March 4/5 to cover the noise of fortifying nearby Dorchester Heights. The British woke up to see that they were in a difficult position. Their cannon could not hit the American artillery on top of the hill but the artillery could theoretically strike British ships in the harbor. The British admiral was unwilling to test that theory, so Howe agreed to an evacuation of the 8,900 British troops, their families and eleven hundred loyalists on March 6.

While the British government tried to pretend that the withdrawal was part of a greater plan, there was no denying that it was a remarkable victory for the rebels. Once it had become clear that the British had sailed to Halifax, most of the rebel army started marching to New York.

Attack on Charleston
The governors of Virginia and North Carolina had repeatedly assured the British government that the rebels in their colonies were a tiny minority and a strong force of soldiers would attract huge numbers of loyalists. It seems odd that their opinions were taken seriously since they had been forced to abandon their homes but Major General Henry Clinton was sent in January to capture Charleston, South Carolina. He soon realized that it was impossible to expect loyalists to produce enough troops to be able to defend themselves against the rebels if the redcoats withdrew. A fleet commanded by Commodore Peter Parker brought reinforcements from Britain under Major General Charles Cornwallis but they were exhausted after spending three months at sea. Worse, his attempt to land troops against the fort that guarded the harbor failed on June 28 because the ships could not get close enough. An attempt to have the warships shell the fort misfired when the ships took a heavy beating and one frigate had to be abandoned after it ran aground. At that point, the fleet sailed to New York while Clinton and Parker argued over who was to blame for the defeat.

The Hiring of Hessian Mercenaries
Reinforcements would be needed to crush the rebellion but the British army was already pushed to its limits. The army had forty-eight thousand men but sixteen thousand were stationed in England and Scotland, twelve thousand maintained control of Ireland, nine thousand were spread out in garrisons across India, Africa, Gibraltar and the West Indies, and the final eight thousand were already in America. King George III was unwilling to raise new regiments because although the regiments could be disbanded after order had been restored to the colonies, the officers would continue to receive half-pay, further straining the treasury. Instead, it was decided to hire 17,000 troops (29,000 would be hired in total) from the German dukedoms of Brunswick, Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Hanau, although the troops would be called Hessians because half of the men came from Hesse-Cassel. The troops were not mercenaries but conscripts and the money went to the treasuries of the dukes.

When the Hessian and British troops finally sailed for North America in May, it was the largest British army that had ever been fielded outside of England. 325 ships manned by 10,000 sailors carried 32,000 soldiers. Howe’s elder brother Richard was in command of the fleet, and was also given authority to conduct peace negotiations.

The New York Campaign
New York City would be much more difficult for the rebels to defend because it was vulnerable to attack by sea from many directions, and the British ruled the sea. However, it had to be occupied because it was the second largest city in the colonies and it controlled the Hudson-Lake Champlain corridor. The key to the defence of New York was Brooklyn Heights on Long Island across the East River, which dominated both the city and the harbor, so the troops worked hard to build several forts that were connected by long lines of trenches.

The British fleet began appearing on the morning of June 29 and by the end of the day, over a hundred ships were anchored outside the city. Any hope that overwhelming force would cow the rebels into surrender ended when the Continental Congress voted on July 6 for independence, so it was no longer a battle to preserve their rights as free-born Englishmen. Ships continued to arrive throughout July, and by August 12, there were almost 400 ships and 32,000 troops, slightly more than the 30,000 inhabitants of Philadelphia, the largest city in the American colonies. The British felt that it was inconceivable that the rebels would last long against such a powerful army.

Unable to predict from what direction the British would attack, Washington decided to protect both Long Island and Manhattan, even though they were separated by the East River, hoping to quickly transfer troops to wherever they were needed. Although he failed to prevent Howe landing 15,000 men on Long Island on August 22, Washington felt that Brooklyn Heights could be held because the three roads that passed through the wood covered ridge in front of the heights were believed to be easily defended. However, Henry Clinton had learned that a fourth road, Jamaica Pass, was unguarded. On the night of August 26, Clinton led the main army through the pass while diversionary attacks were launched on the main line. By noon, a thousand American troops had been captured and the rest of the army was in full retreat but Howe refused to allow his troops to advance against the Brooklyn lines, and forced the more eager commanders to rein in their men. This was the first major battle in the revolution and it had been a serious defeat for the rebels.

Doubting that his outnumbered troops could hold the lines for long against the British, Washington chose to retreat. At that point, escape across the East River to Manhattan Island was possible only because the wind prevented British warships from blocking that route. Fortunately, the British decided to not make a frontal assault but were digging trenches towards the American lines. To everyone’s surprise, nine thousand men were smoothly evacuated during the night of August 29/30, thus preserving the American army. Although the initial retreat from Brooklyn was efficient, the discipline soon disappeared as hundreds of soldiers simply walked off, feeling that they had been badly led.

While the evacuation had salvaged the situation, there is no denying that Washington had not done well in his first large scale battle. He had committed a serious error in dividing his army, believing that shifting troops over the East River would be as easy as marching them over land. However, although the American generals were still inexperienced compared with their more professional opponents they had survived. Howe was later criticized for not ordering an immediate assault on the Brooklyn lines but he defended his actions by saying that rather than repeating the slaughter of Breed’s Hill, the enemy could be bombarded into submission.

The weakened American army received a respite when the British called a ceasefire to negotiate with representatives from Congress. It soon became clear that the rebels would not give in, and Howe announced an end to negotiations on September 15 by having warships pulverize the defences at Kip’s Bay on Manhattan Island. The men guarding the shore had never imagined such a bombardment and fled, but most of the army managed to escape to Harlem Heights, mainly because the British did not press their attack once they saw that the enemy was retreating. While it may seem odd that the British were content to see the Americans escape yet again, their objective had been New York City. Since it was taken with a surprisingly small amount of casualties, it was understandably considered to be a victory.
 
Although the rebel army was in a good position, its long-term future seemed desperate and men deserted on a daily basis. Washington was all too aware of the problem and knew that the only solution was more professional officers and the long-term enlistments needed to train men to be soldiers. Congress was initially reluctant because many delegates feared a standing army, since it was rebelling against Britain because of its decision to keep a standing army in the colonies. However, it finally gave in and introduced many of the policies requested by Washington, so each soldier who enlisted for the duration would receive 100 acres of land, and stiffer punishments (lashes and executions) were approved for many offenses.

Retreat of the Northern Expedition
Two separate expeditions had been launched against Quebec the previous fall. Since it had been conquered by the British during the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763), it had been taken for granted that the native French citizens would have little desire to fight for their new overlords and the small British garrison would be easily defeated. However, the lenient policies of Governor General Guy Carleton ensured that the Americans received no support from the locals. Montreal was captured but even the combined forces failed to capture Quebec. When a British relief force from England commanded by Major General John Burgoyne appeared on May 29, the rebels fled southwards, finally reaching Crown Point at Lake Champlain.

Major Generals Phillip Schuyler and Horatio Gates arrived at Crown Point on July 5 to find that the survivors of the expedition against Quebec were exhausted and smallpox raged among the men. The scarecrows lying on the ground were obviously unable to repair the ruined fort, which lacked even a single cannon, so Schuyler and Gates decided to move the men to Fort Ticonderoga at the southern end of the lake. Schuyler was in charge of the Northern Department but he handed over command to Gates when Washington refused to support him during a dispute with several colonels from the New England colonies.

A small fleet hastily assembled by Brigadier General Benedict Arnold gave Gates enough time to strengthen Ticonderoga, while the British had to build a fleet from scratch. As the disease came under control it became easier to attract recruits, and the army had passed 11,000 by September 29, although over 4,000 were still on the sick list. Still, Gates was a good organizer and the army began to resemble an army.

Despite Arnold’s efforts, his fleet was badly outmatched by the British fleet and most of the ships were sent to the bottom of the lake on October 12, so it would soon become clear if Gates’ preparations had been sufficient. The British appeared in front of Ticonderoga on October 28 but in the end, Carleton was unwilling to test Gates’ admittedly impressive defenses, especially with winter coming, and retreated the same day. Believing that Crown Point was too exposed, especially given the fragile supply line, he ordered it to be abandoned, which would make any future invasion much harder. When Burgoyne’s strenuous objections were overruled, he decided to return to England, officially for health reasons, but really to lobby for an independent command.

Washington Retreats from New York
While the British army at New York had appeared inactive, Howe had been planning another offensive. An attempt to outflank the rebels on October 12 with an amphibious landing failed because the soldiers were unable to break out of the marshy land. Realizing he might not be so lucky next time, Washington ordered a retreat that succeeded because of an extremely fierce rearguard action and the now customary slow British advance. To be fair, Howe’s plan was to force a battle in an open area, so cutting off the retreat was not a priority. Washington obliged at White Plains on October 28 and even though the British found a weak point, Howe was unable to achieve a breakthrough. When it rained two days later, the rebels retreated once again, and occupied the other side of the Bronx River. The two armies stared at each other for several days until the British army moved away on November 5.

Unsure of the British goal, Washington divided his army into four parts to protect several potential targets but an error in judgment further weakened his army. Fort Washington on the north end of Manhattan Island dominated the Hudson River and Washington had accepted Brigadier General Nathanael Greene’s belief that it could be defended but it fell to the British after a brief but fierce fight. The capture of 2,837 desperately needed troops fueled calls for Washington to be replaced by Major General Charles Lee, second in command of the army.

The rebels retreated into New Jersey but the force with Washington had shrunk to roughly 3,000 men and the enlistments of 2,000 would expire on December 1. Since Washington’s little army clearly posed no threat, Clinton was sent with 6,000 men to take control of Rhode Island, even though he strongly advocated landing behind Washington’s rear and cutting off his retreat. Clinton realized that even a small, weakened army was still an army and could provide the core of a larger army, but Howe wanted to establish control over as much territory as possible. Cornwallis was told to lead 10,000 men to pursue Washington but the professional troops with a lengthy supply train were unable to catch up with the badly equipped rebels.

Cornwallis would have undoubtedly been cheered to learn that the militia’s period of service would expire very soon and Washington would find himself alone. Although 1,000 more starving men had arrived, Lee had failed to appear with reinforcements despite repeated urging. Washington respected Lee as a former British officer too much to simply order him to come, although that respect largely disappeared when he learned that Lee was not coming because he thought that Washington was doomed. As feared, on December 1, Washington watched 2,000 of his men march home, which left him 3,000. Aware that it would be suicide to face the British, he shifted his troops to the Pennsylvania side of the Delaware River. Fortunately for the rebels, Cornwallis had ended his pursuit at the river because both Howe and Cornwallis believed that it would be unforgivable to risk British troops when the war was practically over. The fact that widespread looting/requisitioning of supplies had produced a low-level yet fierce guerrilla war in New Jersey should have shown Howe the error of his thinking.

Washington knew all too well that the river was a temporary obstacle at best. His only hope was that Lee would finally show up. Unfortunately, Lee was captured on December 13 by cavalry led by Lieutenant Banestre Tarleton while having breakfast at a tavern. Lee was more feared by the British than Washington, so his capture was quite a coup.

Trenton
That same day Howe decided to enter winter quarters, since snow had started to fall and professional soldiers did not campaign during the winter, therefore the rebels would be left alone on their side of the Delaware. 1,500 Hessians under the command of Colonel Johann Rall were left to occupy Trenton and Princeton. Even though it was clear that the rebels had been spared, Washington knew that the remaining enlistments would expire on New Year’s Day. Worse, when Major General John Sullivan brought in Lee’s army on December 20 they numbered 2,000 rather than the expected 4,000, so Washington had less than 6,000 fit men. However, he also had several good senior officers, while the men were ready for a fight.

More important, he had a secret plan for an attack across the Delaware on Christmas night that involved a diversionary attack, the main attack and a force sent to block the Hessians’ escape route. The main force reached Trenton at 8 am but unknown to Washington, horrible weather had prevented the other two attacks. Fortunately for the rebels, although repeated raids had resulted in Rall ordering one company to be ready to muster at a moment’s notice, he simply did not expect that the Americans would mount a serious offensive in the middle of winter. Whether he had drunk too much is unimportant, it was Christmas and no one expected a real attack. Taken by surprise, outnumbered and lacking any real fortifications, the garrison surrendered after 45 minutes with only a handful of American casualties.

Despite the victory, with half of his army still on the other side of the river, Washington knew that he could not face whatever force the British sent in response, so he returned across the river. On December 29, Washington led the full army back to Trenton and then made an urgent plea for the men to remain for an additional month even though their enlistments expired on December 31. Cornwallis reached Trenton on January 2 with 8,000 men and although his initial attack was beaten back, the outnumbered rebels’ prospects were grim. However, Washington still had a trick up his sleeve. Under the cover of darkness, his army abandoned their positions and moved around Cornwallis to attack Princeton, which was in his rear, on January 3. The battle was surprisingly bloody but after fifteen minutes, the rebels had 300 prisoners. Realizing that his army was exhausted, Washington led the troops to winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey.

Although Trenton was a minor strategic victory at best, it was a badly needed morale boost for Americans and proof that the war was not over. Most important, it cemented Washington’s position as commander of the rebel army.

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Further Reading:

1776-David McCullough, Simon & Schuster: New York, 2005.



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