Pierre and Jean Laffite were half-brothers with the same father, a prosperous merchant in the Medoc region, which was famous for smuggling. Pierre was born in 1770 and Jean came into the world in 1782. The breakdown of law and order that followed the French Revolution of 1789 probably taught them to rely on themselves rather than the state. It is unknown when they left France but it most likely occurred after their father died in 1796. Most French emigrants went to the Caribbean, and often ended up in Spanish Louisiana because New Orleans was predominantly French. Napoleon forced Spain to return Louisiana in 1801 but his vast war machine was expensive to run, so President Thomas Jefferson agreed to buy Louisiana in 1803.

Pierre had settled in New Orleans shortly before the handover but competition from the recently arrived American merchants forced him to peddle goods outside the city, so he became familiar with the bayous that surrounded the city and became aware of the huge profits involved in slave trading.

The first twenty years of Jean’s life are still pretty much a mystery but it is known that he went to the sea at an early age and had become a captain of small merchant ships by the time he was twenty. There is even some evidence that he had become a French privateer and he would not be the only merchant captain to make a career shift to privateering since the Napoleonic Wars would involve many countries and a letter of marque legitimized what was essentially piracy against the other side.

Although the United States was neutral, it was considered too weak to do anything, so French and British privateers took American ships at will. However, the number of captured ships eventually became too large to ignore and the British habit of pressing American sailors into the navy finally drove the American government to forbid trade with any foreign ports in 1807, which was a huge shock to the economy and created a massive market for smuggled goods.

New Orleans already had a rich tradition of smuggling but it blossomed rapidly, and Barataria Bay, fifty miles to the south of the city, became the smugglers’ base. It was illegal to import foreign slaves, so Pierre moved to Pensacola, Florida in 1806 in order to purchase slaves legally and then smuggle them to New Orleans, where they were snapped up by plantation owners desperate for cheap labor. While living there he fathered several children with his mistress, a free mulatto woman named Marie Louise Villard. However, Spain’s alliance with Britain in 1808 made trade between Louisiana and Florida complicated and possibly illegal, so he returned to New Orleans in early 1809, and Jean arrived around the same time.

In March, the American embargo on foreign trade was replaced by a simple embargo on trade with Britain and France only. The Spanish alliance with Britain meant that Cuba would no longer receive French ships, a successful slave revolution had eliminated Haiti as a base and Guadaloupe would be conquered by the British in 1810. Since there were no French admiralty courts left in the Caribbean, many French privateers would move their operations to the Louisiana coast.

The Lafitte brothers soon established a successful business at Barataria, where they served as middlemen between privateers and buyers in New Orleans. Since the majority of the population was French or Spanish, they naturally opposed the American government’s ban on smuggling. Commodore David Porter had been sent to end piracy in the Gulf of Mexico, but the legal structure in New Orleans was actively aiding the smugglers and he became so frustrated by the unwillingness of the local government to convict any captured pirates that he had returned to Washington in May.

In 1810, West Florida was occupied by the United States, which ended its use as a route for smuggling slaves. However, a wave of rebellion had swept through Spain’s South American possessions and the new republics needed privateers, so most of the privateers that had operated out of Guadaloupe acquired letters of marque from Cartagena, Columbia. Since the republics lacked the funds to pay for prizes, the privateers started taking their captured cargoes to Barataria. Although the American government officially condemned the smuggling, no efforts were made to shut down the operation at Barataria because President James Madison welcomed anything that weakened the power of Spain.

A slave revolt in January 1811 ended the authorities’ relaxed attitude towards the smugglers, although they had little success at first. Aside from the reluctance of local judges to convict smugglers, the Laffites had discovered alternate smuggling routes in the bayous that enabled them to avoid the government’s patrols.

When the United States declared war on Britain on June 18, 1812, newly arrived General James Wilkinson was too preoccupied with overseeing improvements to the local fortifications to bother chasing smugglers. With the authorities temporarily distracted, the Laffites seized the opportunity to outfit their own privateer in order to cut out the middlemen. However, the brothers were caught during a routine smuggling operation by troops mapping out possible invasion routes. Friends in the legal system ensured that they were not thrown into jail and their privateer proved to be so successful that they owned two more by March 1813. Despite the American government’s widespread use of privateers to raid British shipping, the legal restrictions seemed to have deterred the Laffites from applying for a commission. It is doubtful that they would have been granted one since an arrest order was prepared for the brothers on April 7. Still, the knowledge that they had one of the most powerful corsair fleets in the region must have been some consolation. Aside from their own captured cargoes, they continued to operate their business in Barataria, where even legitimate privateers disposed of their cargoes.

When the Laffites refused to appear in court on the assigned date, they officially became outlaws but they seemed to accept the loss of their lives in New Orleans as an occupational hazard. When Governor Claiborne offered a $500 reward for Jean’s arrest he responded with a reward of $1,000 for Claiborne. They had little fear of arrest, since their smuggling operations were always well-guarded and the authorities believed rumors that the Laffites had hundreds of men at their base, which dampened their enthusiasm for a frontal assault, especially since the war with Britain had first priority on the military.

Commodore Daniel Patterson was assigned to command of the naval forces at New Orleans, and he was promised the ships needed to bring the smugglers under control. Despite the lack of support from the local population, the customs inspectors had become more effective through the process of trial and error, and were confiscating a steadily increasing amount of smuggled goods. Pierre’s habit of regular visits to his mistress made him careless and he was arrested on July 8. On September 3, a British ship appeared at Barataria with an offer for Jean to join a British invasion in exchange for the rank of naval captain and land, along with a promise to stop raiding British and Spanish ships. Jean stalled for time because the British offer only meant something if they won, while the financial benefits hardly compared with the profits he was already making. However, it was clear that the long-term future of his business was at risk. A filibuster expedition in Texas that he was supporting might provide a legitimate base of operations but that was months away at best. Informing the American authorities about the offer might win sufficient time to transfer his operations to Texas. Besides, as a Frenchman it was difficult to cooperate with the British, and as a slave trader, he naturally wanted his biggest market to continue to exist, especially since Britain had outlawed slavery.

Jean found an intermediary to deliver the British documents to the American government but that same day unknown accomplices freed Pierre from jail. Clairborne suspected the validity of the documents, while his senior naval and army officers argued in favor of launching an attack on Barataria as planned. Despite Patterson’s attempts at secrecy, the Laffites were aware of the planned raid. Since the privateers only used the island when they wanted to hold a market, there were only a handful of permanent buildings, never mind fortifications, while few of the roughly four hundred privateers on the island had any interest in fighting a proper invasion force, so the brothers decided to sell as much as possible. When the American ships appeared on September 15, they simply disappeared into the bayous, abandoning all of the goods that had not been sold, although a good number of prisoners were taken. Aside from losing almost all of their possessions, the Laffites’s reputation had suffered a considerable blow.

However, word had spread among the elite of New Orleans of Laffite’s offer to help the government against the British and many leading citizens felt that the offer should have been accepted. Sensing the public mood, even Clairborne advocated granting amnesty to the majority of the Baratarians. When Andrew Jackson arrived to command the defence of the city, the legislature quickly voted to grant an amnesty to the corsairs on the grounds that the city needed experienced sailors. After the British took control of nearby Lake Borgne on December 15, the threat of an invasion became real. Initially opposed to dealing with pirates, Jackson finally gave in and offered an amnesty to any corsair who was willing to fight.

The Laffites reached New Orleans on December 22 and were quickly put to use. Pierre served as a guide for part of Jackson’s army during the battle that stopped the British advance force and the Baratarians were assigned to man a battery on the main line of fortifications along the Rodriguez Canal. Jean spent most of the time with another force guarding a different invasion route in case the British tried to outflank Jackson’s line. On January 5, 1815, four thousand British soldiers launched a frontal assault on Jackson’s line, which was manned by four thousand troops. Ripped to shreds by a murderous crossfire, an hour later half of the British were casualties and both the first and the second-in-command were dead. While there is no doubt that the corsairs played a role in the eventual victory, it was a minor role. The true reason for the greatest American victory during the war was British incompetence and a refusal to abandon a badly flawed approach. However, Jackson held up his end of the bargain and the Baratarians received a presidential pardon for all actions prior to January 8, 1815.

With their smuggling career destroyed, the brothers became involved with a group of men working with Mexican revolutionaries to wrest Texas away from Mexico. Jean was sent to Baltimore to arrange the outfitting of a ship but he realized that the filibusters had little chance of success and found himself agreeing to spy on them on behalf of Spain. Pierre had already made the same conclusion and any hope of resuming their careers as privateers were dashed when Cartagena fell on December 6 after a siege of 106 days.

Around the same time, a small number of privateers under Louis-Michel Aury had built a base at Galveston under the debatable authority of the infant Republic of Mexico. They raided merchantmen in the Gulf of Mexico and then shipped the captured cargoes to New Orleans. Spain was far from pleased at the American government’s inability to prevent the sale of stolen cargoes and the outfitting of privateers in New Orleans, but it was not considered worth going to war over. Pierre continued to supply the Spanish authorities with news about the privateers and the plan to invade Pensacola. However, both brothers were on the lookout for opportunities and one presented itself when Aury decided to abandon the base and set up operations somewhere else. Realizing the value of Galveston as a location for the transfer of stolen cargoes, Jean quickly took control of the remaining privateers on April 8, and formed an official collector of customs and an admiralty court, although he ensured that he had plausible deniability by avoiding any formal positions.

Another opportunity soon appeared when General Charles Lallemand, who had served under Napoleon, arrived at Galveston in February 1818 to seek help in leading a force of French exiles to seize Texas. The first shipload of French settlers were already miserable at Galveston but Lallemand boasted that he expected to raise thousands of followers. Their experience with previous filibusters indicated that Lallemand had little grasp of reality, but faulty organization derailed an attempt to arrange for the next ship to be captured by the Spanish, so the French were able to establish a small community.

Meanwhile, Laffite’s base continued to grow as more and more privateers arrived to dispose of their cargoes. However, when the American government sent a representative to order the French out and an end to relations with privateers, Jean had little choice but to agree. Shortly after, a hurricane destroyed almost the entire base. Suspecting that the Laffites were playing both sides against each other, the Spanish had cut off funds, so Jean returned to New Orleans and Pierre went to Washington to explore connections with the American government and to try to re-establish their relationship with the Spanish. However, by this time, the Laffites had little to offer, especially since America and Spain had signed a treaty that limited Louisiana to the area above the Sabine River, so Mexico, and Texas in particular, were firmly Spanish.

The American government may have signed the treaty but many Americans still thirsted for Texas and a force of American filibusters led by James Long seized control of Texas on June 23. One of the new republic’s first acts was to offer Jean a privateer’s commission at Galveston, which he eagerly accepted since it gave him concrete information for the Spanish. Unfortunately, the Spanish agents had long since lost patience with the Laffites and the filibusters were soon scattered by a Spanish force. However, while the American government would recognize privateering commissions granted by the rebel governments in South America, any captain with a commission of murky legality would be considered a pirate. Jean attempted to get back in Spain’s good graces by trying to set up Long, who was seeking support against Spain. However, the Laffites were struggling to stay solvent, they had too many debts, most of their ill-gotten gain had disappeared into various ventures or legal fees and regular business people no longer wanted to be associated with them. An attempt to become double agents for the United States never gained any traction and Pierre only received a safe pass to leave New Orleans after he promised that their property at Galveston would be destroyed. Jean complied with the terms, and then left Galveston with three small ships. He had no official letter of marque of any kind but hoped that something could be arranged in the future. It soon became known to American authorities that Laffite was taking prizes without a commission. When his men learned that he lacked a commission, almost half mutinied and forced Jean to give them the largest ship.

When Pierre left New Orleans for Charleston in October it was clear that both he and Jean never expected to see their families again. He managed to get a ship and meet Jean at the Isla de Mugeres but the environment for privateers had turned hostile. Bolivar had ceased giving out commissions, which left only Venezuela but it was too legal to accept the Laffites. The remaining pirates shifted operations to the British West Indies and Cuba but were gradually hunted down by American warships.

Pierre was captured at Cancun on October 30 by Spanish soldiers when he was staying at a farm to dispose of stolen goods. He escaped but died of fever on November 9.

Jean’s situation had already taken a turn for the worse, since he lost one of his remaining ships in late October when Spanish warships caught him at Cuba. He was to be tried as a pirate but was transferred to a hospital after he became ill. He escaped on February 13, 1822 and quickly gained command of a ship. However, he found that the American navy was actively hunting pirates operating in the Gulf, and was even entering Cuban waters to pursue pirates. He was captured by the USN Alligator on April 19 but unknown to the American captain, the local authorities turned a blind eye to pirating and soon let Laffite go. Unfortunately, Laffite encountered the same ship almost immediately and although he narrowly avoided capture, the repeated close calls combined with Pierre’s death had shown him that he needed to reconsider his career.

Aware that the majority of surviving corsairs had taken service with the Colombian navy as auxiliaries, he reached Cartagena in May, where he soon acquired a second ship. He began preying on American ships but he treated the crews well, as if he wanted to preserve as much of his reputation as possible. Although the American navy had redoubled its efforts to clear the Gulf of pirates, Jean had a legitimate commission for the first time in his life. On February 5, Laffite mistook two ships for merchantmen, whether they were warships or other privateers is still unknown, and he received a fatal wound, although the ship escaped. His body was buried at sea.

It is doubtful he would have lasted long anyway, since both the British and American navies had declared war on pirates and captured or destroyed most of the buccaneers operating off Cuba, forcing the rest to abandon the sea. At the same time, Mexico was independent and the republican movements in South and Central America had achieved victory, so there would be no need for privateers, and it seems doubtful that the Laffites could have adapted to peace and operated legally.

After their deaths, romantic legends sprung up around them, especially Jean, and there were endless stories about buried treasure, which seems unlikely since all of their profits were either reinvested back into their operations and or disappeared in high living. They never took advantage of opportunities to become legitimate, such as after the successful defense of New Orleans, when their records had been cleared. Even when they were making a great deal of money at Galveston, they never bought land which could have provided a more reliable and respectable source of income.

Related Movies:

The Buccaneer (1938)
Directed by Cecil B. DeMille, starring Frederic March and Franciska Gaal
Powerful pirate Jean Lafitte debates whether to join the greatly outnumbered American army and defend New Orleans or play it safe by working with the invading British during the War of 1812.

The Buccaneer (1958)
Directed by Anthony Quinn, starring Yul Brynner and Claire Bloom
Powerful pirate Jean Lafitte debates whether to join the greatly outnumbered American army and defend New Orleans or play it safe by working with the invading British during the War of 1812.

Further Reading:

The Pirates Laffite: The Treacherous World of the Corsairs of the Gulf-William C. Davis, New York: Harcourt, Inc, 2005.


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